Electrochemical capacitors (ECs), also known as ultracapacitors or supercapacitors, are being considered for uses in hybrid electric vehicles (EVs) where they can supplement a battery used in an electric car to provide bursts of power needed for rapid acceleration, the biggest technical hurdle to making battery-powered cars commercially viable. A battery would still be used for cruising, but capacitors (with their ability to release energy much more quickly than batteries) would kick in whenever the car needs to accelerate for merging, passing, emergency maneuvers, and hill climbing. The EC must also store sufficient energy to provide an acceptable driving range. To be cost- and weight-effective compared to additional battery capacity they must combine adequate specific energy and specific power with long cycle life, and meet cost targets as well. Specifically, it must store about 400 Wh of energy, be able to deliver about 40 kW of power for about 10 seconds, and provide high cycle-life (>100,000 cycles).
ECs are also gaining acceptance in the electronics industry as system designers become familiar with their attributes and benefits. ECs were originally developed to provide large bursts of driving energy for orbital lasers. In complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) memory backup applications, for instance, a one-Farad EC having a volume of only one-half cubic inch can replace nickel-cadmium or lithium batteries and provide backup power for months. For a given applied voltage, the stored energy in an EC associated with a given charge is half that storable in a corresponding battery system for passage of the same charge. Nevertheless, ECs are extremely attractive power sources. Compared with batteries, they require no maintenance, offer much higher cycle-life, require a very simple charging circuit, experience no “memory effect,” and are generally much safer. Physical rather than chemical energy storage is the key reason for their safe operation and extraordinarily high cycle-life. Perhaps most importantly, capacitors offer higher power density than batteries.
The high volumetric capacitance density of an EC (10 to 100 times greater than conventional capacitors) derives from using porous electrodes to create a large effective “plate area” and from storing energy in the diffuse double layer. This double layer, created naturally at a solid-electrolyte interface when voltage is imposed, has a thickness of only about 1 nm, thus forming an extremely small effective “plate separation.” In some ECs, stored energy is further augmented by pseudo-capacitance effects, occurring again at the solid-electrolyte interface due to electrochemical phenomena such as the redox charge transfer. The double layer capacitor is based on a high surface area electrode material, such as activated carbon, immersed in an electrolyte. A polarized double layer is formed at electrode-electrolyte interfaces providing high capacitance. This implies that the specific capacitance of a supercapacitor is directly proportional to the specific surface area of the electrode material. This surface area must be accessible by electrolyte and the resulting interfacial zones must be sufficiently large to accommodate the so-called double-layer charges.
Experience with ECs based on activated carbon electrodes shows that the experimentally measured capacitance is always much lower than the geometrical capacitance calculated from the measured surface area and the width of the dipole layer. For very high surface area carbons, typically only about ten percent of the “theoretical” capacitance was observed. This disappointing performance is related to the presence of micro-pores and ascribed to inaccessibility of some pores by the electrolyte, wetting deficiencies, and/or the inability of a double layer to form successfully in pores in which the oppositely charged surfaces are less than about 2 nm apart. In activated carbons, depending on the source of the carbon and the heat treatment temperature, a surprising amount of surface can be in the form of such micro-pores.
It would be desirable to produce an EC that exhibits greater geometrical capacitance using a carbon based electrode having a high accessible surface area, high porosity, and reduced or no micro-pores. It would be further advantageous to develop carbon-based nano-structures that are conducive to the occurrence of pseudo-capacitance effects, such as the redox charge transfer.
Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are nanometer-scale sized tube-shaped molecules having the structure of a graphite molecule rolled into a rube. A nanotube can be single-walled or multi-walled, dependent upon conditions of preparation. Carbon nanotubes typically are electrically conductive and mechanically strong and stiff along their length. CNTs are being studied for electrochemical supercapacitor electrodes due to their unique properties and structure, which include high specific surface area (e.g. up to 1,300 m2/g), high conductivity, and chemical stability. Capacitance values from 20 to 180 F/g have been reported, depending on CNT purity and electrolyte, as well as on specimen treatment such as CO2 physical activation, KOH chemical activation, or exposure to nitric acid, fluorine, or ammonia plasma. Conducting polymers, such as polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, and their derivatives, are also common electrode materials for supercapacitors. The modification of CNTs with conducting polymers is one way to increase the capacitance of the composite resulting from redox contribution of the conducting polymers. In the CNT/conducting polymer composite, CNTs are electron acceptors while the conducting polymer serves as an electron donor. A charge transfer complex is formed between CNTs in their ground state and aniline monomer. A number of studies on CNT/conducting polymer composites for electrochemical capacitor applications have been reported.
However, there are several drawbacks associated with carbon nanotube-filled composites. First, CNTs are known to be extremely expensive due to the low yield, low production rate, and low purification rate commonly associated with the current CNT preparation processes. The high material costs have significantly hindered the widespread application of CNTs. Second, CNTs tend to form a tangled mess resembling a hairball, which is difficult to work with (e.g., difficult to disperse in a liquid solvent or resin matrix). This and other difficulties have significantly limited the scope of application of CNTs.
Instead of trying to develop much lower-cost processes for making CNTs, researchers at Nanotek Instruments, Inc. have worked diligently to develop alternative nano-scaled carbon materials that exhibit comparable properties and can be mass-produced at much lower costs. This development work has led to the discovery of processes for producing individual nano-scaled graphite planes (individual single-layer graphene sheets) and stacks of multiple graphene sheets, which are collectively called nano graphene platelets (NGPs). A single-layer graphene sheet is basically a 2-D hexagon lattice of sp2 carbon atoms covalently bonded along two plane directions. The sheet is essentially one carbon atom thick, which is smaller than 0.34 nm. The structures of NGPs may be best visualized by making a longitudinal scission on the single-wall or multi-wall of a nano-tube along its tube axis direction and then flattening up the structure to form a single-layer or multi-layer graphene platelet. In practice, NGPs are obtained from a precursor material, such as graphite particles, using a low-cost process, but not via flattening of CNTs. These nano materials are cost-effective substitutes for CNTs or other types of nano-rods for various scientific and engineering applications.
Nano graphene materials have recently been found to exhibit exceptionally high thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, and high strength. As a matter of fact, single-layer graphene exhibits the highest thermal conductivity and highest intrinsic strength of all currently known materials. Another outstanding characteristic of graphene is its exceptionally high specific surface area. A single graphene sheet provides a specific external surface area of approximately 2,675 m2/g (that is accessible by liquid electrolyte), as opposed to the exterior surface area of approximately 1,300 m2/g provided by a corresponding single-wall CNT (interior surface not accessible by electrolyte). The electrical conductivity of graphene is slightly higher than that of CNTs.
Two of the instant applicants (A. Zhamu and B. Z. Jang) and their colleagues were the first to investigate NGP- and other nano graphite-based nano materials for supercapacitor application [Please see Refs. 1-5 below; the 1st patent application was submitted in 2006 and issued in 2009]. After 2007, researchers began to realize the significance of nano graphene materials for supercapacitor applications [Refs. 6-12]